Education for Engagement in Civil Society and Government. ERIC Digest.

Engagement of citizens with the institutions and operations of their communities and government is a central characteristic of a strong democracy. A recent report of The National Commission on Civic Renewal (1998, 6), however, has sounded alarms about the declining quantity and quality of citizen engagement in America's political and civic life and warns, "In a time that cries out for civic action, we are in danger of becoming a nation of spectators." Several recent reports and studies concur about declining participation by Americans in their civil society and government (American Civic Forum 1994; Bahmueller 1997; Putnam 1995).

A great strength of democratic government in the United States has been its interactions with civil society, which "refers to voluntary social activity not compelled by the state" (Bahmueller 1997, 26). Through voluntary participation in freely formed civil society associations (sometimes called non-governmental organizations or NGOs), citizens pursue personal interests that may serve the public good. Through this civic engagement, they develop the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and habits that make democracy work (Patrick 1996; Putnam 1995). Further, the many voluntarily formed associations of civil society are an ever-present countervailing force against abuses of power in the government.

A reliable indicator of the health of democracy in America is the vitality of civil society. However, The National Commission on Civic Renewal reports the generally accepted conclusion that "our overall civic condition is weaker than it was--and in need of significant improvement" (1998, 23). What can be done through education in schools to renew the constructive engagement of citizens in political and civic life and thereby revitalize civil society and government in America?

DEVELOPMENT OF INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL FOR THE ENGAGED CITIZEN

Development of intellectual capital involves the conjoining of content and processes--basic subject matter and cognitive processes and skills. To elevate one over the other--content over processes or vice versa--is a pedagogical flaw that impedes achievement of learners (Hirsch 1996). Further, some ideas, information, and issues are more worthy of emphasis than other subject matter in education for engagement in democratic civil society and government. For example, common knowledge of core principles and practices of democracy among students is a prerequisite to the development and maintenance of an active community of self-governing citizens. Without this kind of knowledge, citizens are unable to analyze public policy issues or problems, make cogent decisions about them, or act intelligently to resolve them (Center for Civic Education 1994).

Finally, development of intellectual capital--essential knowledge and cognitive skills--is enhanced by a curriculum anchored in core subjects or academic disciplines. In the social studies field, these core disciplines are history, geography, political science (civics/government), and economics. According to John T. Bruer, a leading practitioner of cognitive science, "Expertise [development of intellectual capital] depends on highly organized, domain-specific knowledge that can arise only after extensive experience and practice in the domain [the academic discipline]. Strategies can help us process knowledge, but first we have to have the knowledge to process" (1993, 15).

DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL CAPITAL FOR THE ENGAGED CITIZEN

A key element of social capital is trust among the citizens of a community. People who trust one another can cooperate to achieve common objectives. Conversely, alienated, atomized, or cynical people are likely to stay outside civil society in a marginalized domain of inefficacy. Political scientist Robert Putnam explains, "By analogy with notions of physical capital and human capital--tools and training that enhance individual productivity--social capital refers to features of social organizations such as networks, norms, and social trust that facilitate coordination and cooperation for mutual benefit" (1995, 67).

Development of social capital can be achieved through experiential learning in concert with academic, cognitive-based learning activities. For example, civic virtues and participatory skills can be developed through methods of cooperative learning and service learning. Cooperative learning experiences involve students working together in small groups to achieve common goals. And service learning involves students participating together in projects that serve the public good in the school or the community outside the school.

Learning experiences that involve cooperation and community service provide opportunities for students to practice skills and behavior that in time become habits of responsible citizenship. Development of these elements of social capital for the engaged citizen is likely to be enhanced when cooperative and service learning experiences are connected systematically to the development of intellectual capital through lessons about academic subject matter. For example, principles of democracy that students learn through formal academic activities in the classroom should deliberately be applied to service learning experiences in the community outside the school. And students should be required to reflect upon the connections of core academic concepts and service learning experiences (Youniss and Yates 1997, 135-153).

RESOURCES FOR CIVIC EDUCATORS

Center for Civic Education. 5146 Douglas Fir Road, Calabasas, CA 91302. Telephone: (818) 591-9321; FAX: (818) 591-9330; E-Mail: center4civ@aol.com; World Wide Web: <http://www.civiced.org>.

Center for Democracy and Citizenship. 130 Humphrey Center, 301 19th Avenue South, Minneapolis, MN 55455; Telephone: (612) 625-0142; FAX: (612) 625-3513; E-Mail: eeschenbacher@hhh.umn.edu; World Wide Web: <http://www.hhh.umn.edu/centers/cdc>.

Center for Political Leadership and Participation. University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742; Telephone: (301) 405-5751; FAX: (301) 405-6402; E-Mail: cplp@umail.umd.edu.

Communitarian Network. 2130 H Street, N.W., Suite 714, Washington, DC 20052; Telephone: (800) 245-7460; FAX: (202) 994-1606; E-Mail: comnet@gwu.edu; World Wide Web: <http://www.gwu.edu/nccps>.

Heritage Foundation. 214 Massachusetts Avenue, N.E., Washington, DC 20002; Telephone: (202) 546-4400; FAX: (202) 608-6136; E-Mail: polrev@heritage.org; World Wide Web: <http://www.policyreview.com>.

Kettering Foundation. 200 Commons Road, Dayton, OH 45459; Telephone: (937) 434-7300.

National Commission on Civic Renewal. 3111 Van Munching Hall, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742; Telephone: (301) 405-2790; FAX: (301) 314-9346; World Wide Web: <http://www.puaf.umd.edu/civicrenewal>.

Pew Partnership for Civic Change. 145-C Ednam Drive, Charlottesville, VA 22903; Telephone: (804) 971-2073; FAX: (804) 971-7042; E-Mail: mail@pew-partnership.org; World Wide Web: <http://www.pew-partnership.org>.

REFERENCES AND ERIC RESOURCES

Bahmueller, Charles F. "Civil Society and Democracy Reconsidered." In Laura A. Pinhey and Candace L. Boyer, Eds. RESOURCES ON CIVIC EDUCATION FOR DEMOCRACY: INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES. Bloomington, IN: ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science Education, 1997. ED 415 175.

Bruer, John T. "The Mind's Journey from Novice to Expert." AMERICAN EDUCATOR 17 (Summer 1993): 6-15 and 38-46. EJ 468 083.

Center for Civic Education. NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR CIVICS AND GOVERNMENT. Calabasas, CA: Center for Civic Education, 1994. ED 375 074.

Hirsch, E. D., Jr. THE SCHOOLS WE NEED: WHY WE DON'T HAVE THEM. New York: Doubleday, 1996.

National Commission on Civic Renewal. A NATION OF SPECTATORS: HOW CIVIC DISENGAGEMENT WEAKENS AMERICA AND WHAT WE CAN DO ABOUT IT. College Park, MD: University of Maryland, 1998.

Nie, Norman H., Jane Junn, and Kenneth Stehlik-Barry. EDUCATION AND DEMOCRATIC CITIZENSHIP IN AMERICA. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1996. ED 416 171.

Niemi, Richard G., and Jane Junn. CIVIC EDUCATION: WHAT MAKES STUDENTS LEARN. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998.

Patrick, John J. "Civil Society in Democracy's Third Wave: Implications for Civic Education." SOCIAL EDUCATION 60 (November/December 1996): 414-417. EJ 536 756.

Putnam, Robert D. "Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital." JOURNAL OF DEMOCRACY 6 (January 1995): 65-78.

Youniss, James, and Miranda Yates. COMMUNITY SERVICE AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY IN YOUTH. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1997. ED 411 446.